Incarceration as the common solution to the rise in crimes Essay

In today’s society incarceration in a correctional facility is a common punishment for those who have committed a crime. Earlier responses to crimes were brutal and often tried to relate the punishment to the crime itself. Prisons are not as old as some may think and be established because of displeasure from extensive use of brutal corporal and capital punishment. The Pennsylvania and Auburn systems were two of the earliest modern prison systems that highlighted the opportunity for prisoners to reform. Prison labor can play an important role in a countries economy and overtime can cut many costs. The history of punishment can be described in one word, brutal. Early forms of punishment included torture, beatings, branding, mutilation, and death (Seiter, 2011). Most misdemeanor crimes were punished with fines but more serious offenses were punished with public shame, a period of time in the stocks, or a mark on an individual’s body to identify the offense (Lynch, 2011). Early forms of punishment attempted to relate the punishment to the crime such as liars had their tongues ripped out and thieves had a finger or hand cut off (Seiter, 2011). Some forms of punishment were not directly harmful such as exile from a community or tribe. This would ensure the individual does not repeat the offense but could also cause death because the individual could not survive in the wilderness alone (Seiter, 2011). In England, deportation was a common form of punishment and they would send their prisoners or criminal to their colonies. Prisons are not as old as some may believe. Many people were not satisfied with the response to criminal behavior and found the criminal codes were inhumane. They found judges did not want to impose more severe punishments for fairly minor offenses. William Penn and the Quakers came up with a new criminal code to replace the old one that would abolish capital punishment for crimes other than homicide, provide free food and shelter to inmates, and replace the stocks with houses of detention (Seiter, 2011). This code was later repealed until the late 1700’s when Dr. Benjamin Rush revived the Quaker code and established the first prison in the United States. Rush converted a wing of the Walnut Street jail to house offenders as an alternative to corporal punishment (Seiter, 2011). This early prison stressed hard work and repenting for their offenses. The inmates were kept in individual cells and could not speak so they could avoid moral contamination among the other prisoners (Sei ter, 2011). Administrators would put masks on inmate’s faces when being moved because they did not want other inmates to identify each other. Prisoners were also given work to do in their cells and encouraged to read the bible. Overall the prison enforced strict discipline, hard labor, and solidarity. The Pennsylvania system incorporated the Walnut street jails ideas and operations and encouraged solitary confinement, hard labor, and silence for the inmates. The Pennsylvania system was intended to have prisoners separate from each other even when they were working so inmates would not be distracted and focused on their repentance. The Auburn prison system was first implemented in 1819 at the New York state prison in Auburn. It incorporates the Quaker principles of reformation and considered a less pure model than the Pennsylvania system (Barnes, 1921). The Auburn system incorporated different methods such as inmates together side by side while working, eating and praying but they returned to solitary cells at night. The Auburn system introduced a tier system of different levels of cells built above one another. They housed inmates according to their offenses such as first time and repeat offenders (Barnes, 1921). Inmates wore uniforms of different colors which represented the clas sification of their crimes. Prison labor can be an important part of a countries economy and it can help reduce the cost of keeping inmates in prison. In the past, prison labor has been used as a punishment for those who are incarcerated and is meant to be physically draining. Recently, prison labor has adjusted to help save the cost of housing inmates. By making the inmates work in the prison it cuts the costs because the prison does not have to hire people to do the jobs such as cooking, cleaning, and manual labor. Over the past twenty years, state has passed laws allowing the use of convict labor for commercial enterprises (Whyte & Baker, 2000). Prisoners now are allowed to manufacture many things ranging from blue jeans to auto parts. AT&T has even used prison labor for telemarketing services and in Oregon, prisoners do all the data entry and record keeping for the Secretary of States corporate division (Whyte & Baker, 2000). In today’s society incarceration is a common form of punishment for those who have committed a crime but that has not always been the case. Those who have committed a crime were often beaten, branded, mutilated or even put to death. Prisons are not as old as many may believe and come about because people did not believe in the corporal and capital punishments placed upon people. The Pennsylvania and Auburn systems both incorporated similar aspects but have many distinct features separating them such as their view on isolation. Prison labor has changed over the years and it can help cut costs.    References    Barnes, H. E. (1921). The Historical Origin of the Prison System in America. Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology, 12(1), 35-60. Retrieved May 8, 2015, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/1133652?ref=no-x-route:ed4b290f20ea7490acdfc081b09cdbd2    Lynch, J. (2011). History.org: The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation’s Official History and Citizenship Website. Retrieved from http://www.history.org/Foundation/journal/Summer11/prison.cfm    Seiter, R. P. (2011). Corrections: An introduction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.    Whyte, A., & Baker, J. (2000, May 8). World Socialist Web Site. Retrieved from https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2000/05/pris-m08.html

The invasion in Afghanistan was consistent with the Brezhnev doctrine

The invasion in Afghanistan was consistent with the Brezhnev doctrine that relied on the concept of socialist internationalism that involved help to states that have already joined the bloc of Communist states.The campaign was most probably enabled by a change in the doctrine that involved extra-bloc interventions and more expansionist policies. Although this explanation sounded weak with respect to Afghanistan that never had so much as a mutual assistance treaty with the Soviet Union, the Soviet Union barged in to take control of the area that seemed ‘nobody’s territory.Most probably, the basic reason behind the invasion was to set up a military zone in Southwest Afghanistan that would yield control of the Persian Gulf area. The geostrategic position of Afghanistan was also convenient for reaching India, Burma, and Pakistan with Soviet missiles. Besides, the regime in Afghanistan was to certain extent pro-Soviet, and it was imperative to show that revolutionary gains we re irreversible. Besides, the prospects of an Islamic state established in the area seemed undesirable to the Soviets, because the Soviet Central Asian republics could become influenced by radical Muslim ideas. At the time of the invasion, the USSR could have feared antisocialist encirclement that would include Pakistan, China, and now, Afghanistan.The departure was difficult because the Soviet leaders probably felt the need to bring the war to a victory because of the enormous time and costs that already been committed to the enterprise.They felt that they needed the victory to buttress the pro-Socialist government in this Eastern nation in order to provide support for their nation in this area. The international prestige of the Soviet Union would have been ruined by the loss in the war against a Third-World nation.2. The West reacted with strong disapproval of the Afghan campaign and tough measures including boycott of the Moscow Olympic Games in 1980, economic sanctions, and dela y in the ratification of the SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty) II. The negative reaction in the Third World triggered the disapproving resolution from the UN General Assembly. The Carter Doctrine emerged that warned against any attempt to take control of the Persian Gulf.The reaction from Socialist nations was mixed. Nations like Romania, China, Yugoslavia, and Albania were opposed to the idea, whereas East Germany, Czechoslovakia, and Bulgaria were enthusiastic. Others like North Korea and Cuba were undecided on the issue.3. The war started with a surprise attack as 200 military transports arrived in Kabul, occupying the land with 90,000 troops. The attack proved successful as it allowed the Soviets to kill Amin, establish the government led by Babrak Karmal and effectively seize control of a large territory. However, the later tactics were not that successful.Discovering large guerrilla operations, the army tried to wipe out whole areas, trying to weaken the local population . This further set the local people on edge, perpetuating support of guerrillas. The split of the army into 20% of counterinsurgency units and 80% of occupational forces led to decrease in morale of the occupational forces. The scorched earth policy in particularly hostile areas and provision of incentives for peasants to support the Soviets did not work very effectively either. The low popularity of the puppet Afghan government and its inability to reduce factionalism were other reasons of failure4. The decision to withdraw was made largely because of coming certainty that the war could not be won effectively. An 8-year campaign had failed to establish effective control of the whole territory and damaged the reputation of the Soviet military.At home, the support for the war dropped to dramatic levels, and it was causing deterioration of the morale of the military because of psychological stress and substance abuse. Financial costs also weighed in, as the Afghan campaign competed fo r a share of the Soviet budget with other conflicts in Ethiopia, Angola, Nicaragua, and Vietnam.The international relations were expected to improve in case the war ended. The removal of Soviet troops reduced pressure on NATO to ward off the Soviet threat and could improve relations with the West, accelerating dà ©tente. Improvement was also expected in the relations with China and Muslim nations.

How Sophocles' Oedipus exemplifies Aristotle's definition of a tragic Research Paper

How Sophocles' Oedipus exemplifies Aristotle's definition of a tragic hero - Research Paper Example This research will begin with the statement that Sophocles’ Oedipus The King, is basically a tragedy about the life of its protagonist, Oedipus, son of Laius and Jocasta. The paper at hand focuses on exploring how Oedipus The King incorporates Aristotle’s Definition of a tragic hero, thus, ultimately making the play a tragedy. It also discusses and gives a brief overview of Aristotle’s philosophies regarding tragedy, tragic hero as well as drama. Furthermore, the paper overviews the origins of Oedipus The King and explains the various devices used in the play, such as the style, imagery, tone, recognition, reversal etc. Upon analyzing the drama, it becomes clear that Sophocles indeed exemplifies Aristotle’s definition of a tragic hero through the key elements of Oedipus’ hamartia (tragic flaw), peripeteia, anagnorisis, downfall, getting more than what is deserved etc and the plot epitomizes tragedy through imitation, arousal of pity and fear in the audience and finally the experience of catharsis. The ancient Greeks saw theatre not only as a means of entertainment but also as a way to celebrate their gods, thus they promoted various theatrical performances. These performances were basically in the form of plays or drama, the latter of which is defined by Aristotle as â€Å"poems representing action† in his work named ‘Poetics’. Aristotle also talks about the classification of drama into â€Å"Tragedy and Comedy,† and furthermore, defines tragedy as the â€Å"imitation of an action that is serious and also, as having magnitude, complete in itself.; in appropriate and pleasurable language;... in a dramatic rather than narrative form; with incidents arousing pity and fear, wherewith to accomplish a catharsis of these emotions† (University of Chicago Internet Project, n.d., p.1). According to this definition, on analysis of Oedipus the King, one can see imitation in the form that the performance i s a re-enactment of the whole story, and the main issue in the story is the conflict between fate and Oedipus’ choices or actions. This issue is serious as well as of great importance, and also, it is ‘complete in itself,’ that is, the theme or issue is followed throughout the story. The serious actions range from Oedipus killing his own father to him marrying his mother and in the end becoming a reason for her suicide as well. The point to be noted here is that all his actions, although resulting from fate, are still an outcome of his own decisions. The language used in the play is ‘appropriate and pleasurable’ in the sense that the comments of the chorus are different from that of others’ dialogs, as the former has different meters as well as rhythm and melody. The tone

KOREAN HISTORY Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

KOREAN HISTORY - Essay Example From the action in these schools, it is evident that literature in Korea was similar to that in China. Following the military resistance which occurred towards the end of king Uijong’s rule and destruction of bad and good were done indiscriminately. Fugitives ran to the mountains and left their ranks and adopted the Buddhist’s way of life.(vol 1,pp 198) They believed that their freedom would be gained from the mountains where they stayed for years. For the individuals who wanted to pursue education, Buddhism was the only option. This is because the state was slowly restoring civilian rule and those who wanted to study had nowhere to go. This led to the establishment of monastery for monks at this period. In general, early Korean education majorly originated from the Buddhist way of living due to military revolutions which ripped several dynasties apart. If the schools are expanded and the history of ancient kingdoms are taught following the relations of the five cardinals, then nobody will be interested in Buddhism. According to Kim Busik, while writing history one has to take into consideration factors which motivate the compiling of such piece of work. The factors to be considered are political and ideological. The ideological aspects should be clarified in the preface of the piece of work. The ideological aspect should bring out the clear picture of what the book talks about. For instance, Kim Busik in his book on Korean history about the kingdoms clearly brings out his motives on knowledge relating to Korea. Kim also requires that written history on a subject should be wholly. This can be shown by merging of the three kingdom history with an aim of enabling Korean civilians to have a grasp of their native history. In the written work, according to Kim Busik the compiled work should aim at serving political ends. Kim Busik also emphasized on continuity in a written work. It

The Cultural Clash of a Wedding between a Catholic Priest and a Female Essay

The Cultural Clash of a Wedding between a Catholic Priest and a Female Buddhist - Essay Example Culture plays an important role in every society especially when it comes to religion and gender roles. This aspect has had a major impact on how various people from cultural backgrounds and different gender go about their duties within the society. Ingram states that some cultures and religious doctrines are to a certain degree non-conforming therefore, a major cultural clash can occur in the event of the interaction of the two religious setups that may profess extreme doctrines (6). This is especially so when it involves the incorporation of gender as each religious doctrine associate men and women with specific gender roles. The main aim of this essay is to discuss two distinct cultures and identify the cultural clash that may arise when a wedding between a female Buddhist and Catholic father take place. Religious and cultural doctrines under the Roman Catholic Church Believed to be the earliest Christian Church, the Catholic Church like any other Christian Church, believes in cre ation and life after death. The church practices a number of doctrines that place women at a certain level within the society. Worshipping I the dioceses and parishes, the Catholic hopefuls, men and women included, partake of the mass and to a certain degree, confine their religious teachings within the Bible. The worshippers believe in trinity and the resurrection of Jesus Christ and they confirm this by baptism and partaking of the Holy Sacrament. Most worshippers believe in religious symbols of Jesus and Mary as a way of connecting to God. When it comes to gender and sexuality issues, the Catholic Church is especially restrictive to women holding positions of power like the papacy and fatherhood. In addition, men who have devoted their lives to Christ ought not to marry (Ingram 22). Religious and cultural doctrines in Buddhism Unlike their Christian counterparts, the Buddhists believe in the Three Jewels, often referred to as the Three Refugees. The Buddha, the Four Noble Truths, and the Four Reminders, talk about human life and the essence of his existence although some of the details contained therein may significantly differ with Christian beliefs (Ingram 24). When it comes to gender roles, there is perception that women ought to be equal to men although there are certain discrepancies. The monks and nuns ordain the nuns while only the monks ordain themselves. According to the Buddhist philosophy, enlightenment of a person can elevate their social status irrespective of their gender, a perception that has infiltrated several Buddhist cultures through western modernization (Ingram 36). The clash between the Roman Catholic and the Buddhist culture Although there are some elements of resemblance between the Buddhist and Catholic belief systems, significant inconsistencies surface across the across the cultural divide of the two cultures. According to Ingram, certain similarities do exist especially pertaining to the exclusive importance accorded to life wit hout due regard to the specific gender. These include the right to life, refraining from sexual misconduct, practice of high morals, and the belief in a supernatural being, which has spiritual reign over all that inhabit the earth (26). However, there are notable differences between the two cultures that may lead to a scenario of a cultural clash, in case circumstances force the two cultures to interact (Ingram 32). The major one being that generally, Buddhists are polytheists while the Christian Catholics are monotheists. While Christians follow one Almighty God, most Buddhists have specific gods for certain incidences of life, for example the god of life, the god of marriage, and the god of the skies. Christians do believe in the good old story of creation of mankind and life after death while to the Buddhists, it is a bit twisted in that they do not regard the story of creation while at the same time ignoring what happens after life on earth as

Literature and demographics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Literature and demographics - Essay Example This essay "Literature and demographics" outlines the connection between demographics, social structure and literature. America has the most diverse demographics with a population of more than 400 million out of which 30 million individuals belong to different parts of the world (State). They speak numerous languages and practice different beliefs. Millions of new individuals arrive every year in the United States which ultimately makes the demographics of the country more appreciable. These diverse groups of people actually have a direct impact over the art and literature of the country. Therefore the American literature is recognized as the most glamorous and exciting piece of art which perfectly portrays the lifestyle of people and the different modes of their culture. In broader terms the significant components of American demographics can be explained as following (State): †¢ America is categorized among the most advanced nations with more than 50% urban population which indicates that the city life in the country has substantially more value than the rural life. †¢ The population is around 2% i.e. in relation with the number of births per woman. †¢ The number of females is more than the number of males. Research indicates that there is a low birth rate of females as compared to males which is contributing to higher number of female population. †¢ One-fourth of the population is under the age of 20 years. †¢ There are people from all around the world i.e. from Arab countries, Europe, Africa, etc. The social structure is divided among different classes having different proportion as per the overall population. For instance, the capitalist constitute only 1% whereas upper middle class have 15% proportion of the population. Apart from this the working class and the lower middle class have the highest percentage i.e. 30% In the 18th and 19th century the American population had a significant proportion of slaves although the concept of slavery was prevailing in the rural areas only however, it was also one of the major divisions of the social classes. With the economic and technological advancements the slaves ultimately diminished from the demographics of the America and what remained back does not constitute a greater proportion (Douglass). â€Å"A Narrative on the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave† is the most distinctive and widely accepted piece of American lit erature which tells the real life story of a slave who later became world renowned author. The story basically demonstrates the demographics of early 19th century when slavery was extensively practiced in Maryland. It is located in the mid-Atlantic region of America, where some of the elite families used to live along with their slaves. These were the Native Americans masters and slaves were particularly recognized by their surnames. The author has expressed his real experiences in the story which carry great authenticity. The social structure of Maryland at that time was divided among the elite class and slaves. There was no concept of working or middle class families. This was actually the driving force which compelled the masters to act highly ignorant towards their slaves. Frederick Douglass was born in a dark colored family which actually created lot problems in his life reflecting that there was a significant discrimination on the basis of color. The gap between the two social classes was so wide that the black children were not

Finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 6

Finance - Essay Example As far as unsystematic risk is concerned, it can be defined as a type of risk which can affect each and every investment (Stulz 2003). Unlike systematic risk, unsystematic risk can be called as a specific risk. It does not take into its captivity the whole system but affects in chunks. Unsystematic system is less threatening as compared to systematic risk. Due to this risk, the prices can be altered because of the specific security measures in comparison to the whole system or the whole market (Stulz 2003). Systematic risk cannot be escaped fully but unsystematic risk can be escaped fully if proper measures are taken (Stulz 2003). Systematic risk is also regarded as the only relevant risk because it is the one, which cannot be escaped. Systematic risk affects the organization, market and the whole system to a great extent and its affect is a must (Stulz 2003). Systematic risk is regarded as the only relevant risk because it can only be reduced by the four ways which are avoidance, retention, reduction and transfer but it cannot be ended wholesomely (Stulz 2003). In the context of the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM), beta coefficient can be defined as a key parameter. It is employed for the measurement of part of the asset’s statistical variance (Crosson and Needles 2008). The asset’s statistical variance cannot be lessened by means of the diversification, which is provided by the portfolio of the risky assets. The reason as to why it cannot be lessened by means of diversification is that it forms a relationship with the assets that can be retrieved back in the portfolio (Hussey 1991). Only those companies can make use of the beta coefficient that are making use of the regression analysis (Feibel 2003). When a beta can be seen in a portfolio, it means that the management is seeing some risks with the investment and is showing their willingness to take risk. The betas can be obtained when the management is ready to take the risks

Performance of the Leader as Affected by Followers Essay

Performance of the Leader as Affected by Followers - Essay Example However, as observed, leadership does not necessarily imply laudable, good conduct as it is entirely possible to induce destructive behavior through crooked ways (Hock, 2001). In Hock's description, the true leaders are those who typify the general sense of the community, "enabling its conscious, shared values and beliefs to emerge and be transmitted from generation to generation" (Hock, 2001). From here comes the belief that a community is eventually directed by the conscious, shared values and beliefs of the individuals of which it is composed (Hock, 2001). This may be exemplified by two leaders that had different types of followers: the non-violent Dr. Martin Luther King and the cruel Adolf Hitler (Warren, 2001). A much better way to understand leader performance as affected by the follower is Hollander's (1997) explanation about the dynamics of leadership. He said that the follower role is expected as one of low power and passive but this is misleading, he believed, because followership is an active accompaniment to leadership. Leaders may be more active, especially in directing, but followers can affect a leader as an "attentive strategic audience," he said. There exists in fact a two-way support and influence that are essential to the leader-follower bond (Hollander, 2007). Such are understood as credit that followers can accord or withhold from their leaders, reflecting their loyalty and trust (Hollander, 1997). This ties up with what Barbara Kellerman (2004) warned as bad followership existing in our systems. In a very real sense, followers lead by choosing where to be led (Hock, 2001), affirming the belief that followers have a way of affecting leader performance. This line of reasoning is maintained throughout this paper. From definitions of leadership and how it occurs, to leadership characteristics, the discussion leads to the leader-follower relationship, also called Inclusive Leadership (CCL, 2007) and particularly describes the "Idiosyncrasy Credit" (IC) Model of Holland (1968) as a cogent explanation of the dynamics of this relationship. The discussion further delves into followership and goes finally to the topic of leadership performance. This is made distinct from optimum organizational performance where ideally the former is made subject to the latter. The paper includes specific examples of bad leaders and follower influence on the topic of idiosyncratic credits (IC) model propounded by Hollander (1964). It finally concludes with the recommendation that followership as a subject of research should be given importance. Leader-follower relationship How relationship develops. Leadership is a field of interaction or a relationship between leaders and followers (Warren, 2001). Such leader-follower relationship ideally evokes the essence of a clear, meaningful purpose and compelling ethical principles (Hock, 2001), where the relationship develops with the leader and the follower connecting to create one, undivided whole. This means there is no leader who can exist without gaining the support of others (Warren, 2001). Conflicts may come at times between leader and follower, partly on account of leaders and followers processing information from their own subjective, internal frame of reference (Warren, 2001). However, an alignment may come between the two when followers identify with a leader because the leader fits the followers' image of

Psychological perspectives Essay Example for Free

Psychological perspectives Essay The brain is a super computer with a complicated network of neurones subserving many of the activities of our daily life. Many of us are unaware of the various interconnected processes that work in unison to let us lead a simple uncomplicated life. Only when someone is ill or not normal do we feel the messing up of a great system. Cognitive function is the intellectual process by which a person becomes aware of, perceives or comprehends ideas. Recognition, conception, sensing, thinking, reasoning, remembering and imagining all come under cognitive functions ( Parayannis, 2000) Behaviour, being emotional or angry are other features of cognitive functions of the brain. They are all related to specific centers or regions of the brain. Injury in the form of trauma or illnesses leads to various cognitive impairments. Summarizing I would deign to declare that each of us is what our brains would want us to be. The combinations and permutations of the neurones decide our personality, skills, talents, feelings, behavior and responses. However we are aware of the fact only in the case of damage to one or more areas of the brain. The theme I shall discuss in my paper is â€Å" Psychological perspectives†. I have selected four chapters from this course which I believe should carry the message of the enigma that is the brain and the emotions that are attached for a social set up. They are Memory System (Chapter 8), Cerebral Cortex and the Lobes of the brain( Chapter 2), Aggression and Prosocial Behaviour (Chapter 16 ) and Social Development (Chapter 3). Memory Memory is of three kinds: sensory, short-term and long-term. Sensory memory depends on auditory, visual and visuo spatial functions . Both cerebral hemispheres are involved in analyzing sensory data, performing memory functions, learning new information, forming thoughts and making decisions (Parayannis, 2000). The left takes care of the sequential analysis. New information is systematically and logically interpreted. Symbolic information like language, mathematics, abstraction and memory is also dealt with. Memory is stored in a language format. The right hemisphere deals with the interpretation of multiple sensory inputs and here memory is stored as auditory, visual and spatial functions. One’s environment is understood. The interpretation of dancing and gymnastics are possible through the right hemisphere functions. Short term memory holds small amounts of information. Selective attention is involved. Everything that we see or hear is not stored. Short term memory is sensitive to interruption or interference. combined with other mental processes, short term memory forms an area of working memory which we use to do our thinking with. This behaves like a scratchpad. When we tackle arithmetic, do a puzzle, prepare a meal or read something, we are using our working memory. Information that has to be stored for long is possible due to long term memory which is also a function of the brain. The area which holds infinite amounts of information can never run out of ‘space’. A person’s educational caliber is supported by this long term memory which is encoded in terms of meaning and importance. Our daily activities are enabled by dual memory comprising of short term and long term memory. When we have an information which we used (short-term) but is not required for the time being, we store it in our long term memory and retrieve it when necessary. Memory loss, a feature of cognitive impairment, is the delay or failure to recall recent or distant events. Amnesia is an extreme form of memory loss when caused by a more severe injury to the brain, probably in a road accident, bomb explosion or shooting incident. Involvement due to injury or aging can produce loss of memory of varying levels. Loss can be a mild dysfunction (MCI ) or severe and named as dementia. Old people of 55-80 years of age could have cognitive impairment without having any illness. Memory loss is seen in degenerative disorders or dementias like Alzheimer’s, traumatic brain injuries, following ECT or in Korsakoff’s psychosis. Damage to the limbic system causes a loss of recent memory. This is seen in Korsakoff’s Disease. Recent events are forgotten due to a direct effect of alcohol or due to the associated nutritional deficiencies. . The ability to store and retrieve from short term memory is affected in natural aging too. The foremost problem is the loss of recent memory in Alzheimer’s Disease. The care-taker needs to be extremely patient as all her time would be spent for looking after the patient ( Ballenger, 2006). Traumatic Amnesia usually occurs as a transient phenomenon following a head injury. ECT induced amnesia follows episodes of ECT in a psychiatric illness. The amnesia is transient and may last a year. Patients with implicit memory (not dependent on the part of the brain) remember to do some things (Dorf et al, 1994). Extensive damage to the left cerebral cortex can affect long term memory. Damage to the right cerebral cortex produces a disturbance in the visual and auditory perceptions and visuo-spatial deficit. Memories of seen articles or heard songs or even regularly visited places would not be remembered. The Cerebral Cortex and the Lobes of the Brain The brain is composed of the cerebrum, cerebellum and the brain stem. The cerebrum forms the greatest part and is divided into lobes named by the overlying bone (April, 1990). The left and right cerebral hemispheres consist of the cerebral cortex, white matter and basal ganglia. The cerebral cortex is the outermost layer of the brain composed of grey matter. It has 1015 individual neurons connected in specific patterns. The white matter holds the tracts which connect the neurons. The surface is folded into gyri separated by sulci or grooves. Each half of the cerebral hemispheres has the frontal lobe, temporal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, the limbic lobe and the central lobe. Motor and sensory cortex are found. Sensory cortex is again sub-divided into primary, secondary and association cortices. Primary is where the stimulus reaches first. Secondary is the area which is connected to the primary and helps in the processing. Association cortices have a 2 stimuli input. There are 3 identified associative cortices. They are the basis of thought and perception with practically no influence on behavior. They are the parieto-temporal-occipital cortex, pre-frontal area and the limbic association area. The first receives somatosensory, auditory and visual projections. These associative areas integrate the information from the sensory modalities for language. Injury affecting this area causes a faulty language. The prefrontal area if affected produces problems in several cognitive behaviours. Difficulty arises in control of motor planning. The ability to concentrate and attend, elaboration of thought, personality and emotional traits are determined here. The frontal lobe subserves cognition and memory. Broadman’s area in the left frontal lobe is involved with voluntary motor activities( April,1990). Damage to this area causes contralateral hemiplegia associated with a motor aphasia (involvement of the prefrontal cortex or Broca’s area). The parietal lobe processes sensory inputs and discrimination, body orientation and ability to write. Damage would produce an inability to recognize parts of the body, space and an inability to write. The occipital lobe is involved with primary visual function and visual interpretation. Damage would cause cortical blindness even when the eyes are perfectly normal. The temporal lobe which has the Wernicke’s area subserves the auditory function, expressed behaviour, receptive language and memory. Damage would result in hearing deficits, childish behaviour and receptive aphasia. Lateralisation is evident in the right and left handedness of people. However this is no indication of the dominance of any hemisphere. 95% of people have left hemisphere language function, 18. 8% have right hemisphere language function. 19. 8 % have bilateral language functions. Linear reasoning, speech and vocabulary are lateralised to the left hemisphere. Dyscalculia is caused by damage to the left temporo-parietal region. This leads to difficulty in doing mathematics. Some language functions like intonation and accentuation are with the right hemisphere. Musical and visual stimuli, spatial manipulation, facial perception and artistic ability are functions of the right too. Logical reasoning is with the left but intuitive reasoning is with the right. Cerebral asymmetry is the feature of the normal human brain. The left is the dominant hemisphere with language functions while the right is involved more with visuo-spatial functions. An acquired language deficit accompanying right-sided stroke (left hemisphere involvement) is the best indication that the left hemisphere is dominant for language. The right hemisphere stroke does not involve speech problems. The corpus callosum connects the 2 hemispheres and coordinates the functions of both. Any injury to this area causes ‘Split brain’ where the coordination between the 2 hemispheres is lost. A ‘split brain’ patient does not speak of emotions or feelings. The right hemisphere and the left behave independently. The patient appears to have 2 minds. It was revealed in studies by Robert Sperry, a psychobiologist, who conducted studies in patients in whom commissurectomy (severing the corpus callosum from each hemisphere ) was done as a treatment for intractable epilepsy. He found that the two halves of the brain had specific functions and each side acted independently, whereas in the normal brain, the two halves act in coordination. This is the theory of hemispheric independence (Zaire et al, 1990) After the operation, the right half showed predominance when it came to spatial tasks like arrangement of blocks. The limbic area is the area of the brain that affects the emotions, rage, fear and sex. Integration of recent memory and biological rhythms are decided here. If this area is affected, an angry but frightened personality without emotional control would be the result. Recent memory would be lost. Aggression and Prosocial Behavior Prosocial Behaviour is helpful behavior intended to help another. It is different from altruism in that it is not voluntary helping behaviour that is costly to the giver (Psychology:An International Perspective, 2004). Another definition states that this refers to the â€Å"voluntary actions intended to help another† ( Eisenberg and Mussen, 1989). Prosocial behaviour refers to the consequences of a doer’s actions rather than the motivations behind them. They include sharing, comforting, rescuing and helping, understanding the needs of the recipient (Knickerbocker, Learning to give). Traditional theories of helping include sociobiology, social learning , empathy and arousal. Physical aggression is a major health problem. Childhood aggression is a precursor to physical and mental health problems that occur in later life. Aggressive children are also liable to higher risk of substance abuse , alcoholism, accidents, violent crimes, depression, suicide attempts, spouse abuse, neglectful and abusive parenting (Tremblay et al, 2004) It is unusual for the aggressive students to really harm their targets. However in studies of physical aggression in infancy, it was shown that by 17 months, a large majority of children are already aggressive towards their siblings, parents and peers (Tremblay et al, 2004). A study by Tremblay et al attempted to identify the trajectories of physical aggressions during early childhood and also o identify antecedents of high levels of physical aggression early in life. 572 families with a 5- month old baby were selected and followed up till 42 months. 3 trajectories were identified. The first group of 28% had children who displayed little or no aggression. 58% showed a rising trajectory of modest aggression. 14 % showed a high level of physical aggression (Tremblay et al, 2004). Best predictors before the birth of the child were, having other siblings, confidence interveal, mothers with early( before end of high school ) and high antisocial behaviour , young mothers, families with low income and mothers who smoked. The conclusion indicated was that physical aggression started in early infancy. All the predictors before birth were reasons for the child not learning how to preventive interventions. In order to change or reduce the long term impacts preventive intervention programmes must be chalked out effectively (Tremblay et al, 2004) In a model identifying 5 factors that prompt voluntarism (Clary and Snyder, 1990), they found that a combination of factors ultimately motivates volunteers. One factor is altruism but all the other four are self serving: motivation by socially adjustable conditions, ego defensive considerations, the desire to acquire knowledge or skills for personal or professional education and helping understanding the needs. Aggression is caused in 3 ways in a child: instinct, rewards and observation. Obviously these 3 factors rule the manner in which the aggression is to be overcome or prevented. Catharsis may be tried to vent the child’s anger in other ways. Rewarding non aggressive behaviour works. Cognitive training is also effective. Promoting prosocial behaviour should be tried. Rewarding good behaviour may not be so effective. A better way is to try modelling. The parent should ‘model’ good behaviour as the child always has a tendency to imitate its parents. The parent appeals to the childs pride and desire to be agrown-up (Aggressive and Prosocial Behaviour, Psychology campus. com). Social development Like all humans , babies are also social creatures. It was found from studies that babies recognise themselves at the age of 15 months. Prior to that, they would treat their mirror image as another like them and would even coax them to come out to play. At about 15 months of age, the baby starts showing interest in others and developing a social awareness. It starts showing the emotions of shame, guilt, embarassment and pride. These babies glance at the facial expressions of others to decide how to react just like adults. In one study babies placed at the side of a high cliff kept watching their mothers’ faces. If they were encouraging, the babies would cross. When the mothers exhibited fear, the babies did not move. This is identified as social referencing. It. demonstrated the emotional bond or attachment of the babies with their mothers or caregivers. For most infants emotional bonding appears around 8 to 12 months of age. Psychologist Mary Ainsworth (1913 -1999) spoke about 3 kinds of attachments. The securely attached infants would be upset by the mother’s absence. An insecure avoidant child is anxious about the mother’s absence but turns away when she returns. An insecure ambivalent child also has an emotional bond but has mixed feelings . It wants to be with the mother but is angry at her and does not want contact. Attachments do play a role in the life of the child and its future behaviour. The securely attached ones would be the most confident. Attachment failures could be damaging. The mother has a strong role in promoting attachment in an infant, hoping to improve its mental status and bringing up a resilient child. Attachments to fathers provides one more reason to have a closely knit family with well behaved children. When a seond child arrives, attachment security drops. Commercial child care centers if of good quality does provide additional security. Children tend to have better relationships with their mothers and lesser problems.

Charles Dickens Great Expectations Essay Example for Free

Charles Dickens Great Expectations Essay An exploration of the ways in which issues of class and status are presented in Charles Dickens Great Expectations and L. P. Hartleys The Go-Between. Both Charles Dickens Great Expectations and L. P. Hartleys The Go-Between discuss the class assumptions of early Victorian England; around 1807-1823 is when most of the action can be dated too in Great Expectations and at the start of the 20th century, the year 1900 in The Go-Between. Both novels portray a class structure in decline or under threat, as the rise of trade unions and rights for women were to transform the quiet hierarchy that had existed for countless generations. In this essay I will draw out the similarities and differences in how the two authors present the issues of class and status to the reader. Hartley often seems to place great value in the tradition and history of an ancient, aristocratic, ruling class; Dickens regards beyond all else the value of hard work. Dickens argues that social status denotes nothing but money, whereas Hartley seems to glory in the upper-classes natural superiority, such as at sport and at music: none can match Marion in skill. Hartley warns against the social mobility that makes Marion too good for Ted despite their love for each other and subverts the natural hierarchical order and security that has existed for centuries, yet Dickens denounces a society that lavishes upon the few at the exclusion of the multitude. Dickens characters suffer under or bask in justice offered by the plot, as good characters are rewarded and bad characters condemned. Hartley shows little similar sympathys as discussed below. Dickens consciously relays no support for the idea that the upper classes are naturally morally superior; dispelling all pretentiousness to this tenuous link in the contrast between Drummle and Joe, whereas in Hartleys The Go-Between, Triningham is by far and away the kindest character, whom the reader instinctively warms to, and enchants all with his natural grace and elegance, seemingly affirming the assumption of the ancient idea of the moral superiority of the wealthy, going back to the Bible story of Job in the Old Testament, where God blessed a good man with wealth. Ironically, Triningham is already displaying the injuries already done to the aristocracy, he has been forced to rent out the home his ancestors have held for generations as he himself can no longer afford to live there; he himself has lost his wealth in his property, even though temporarily. Nevertheless, the middle classes Maudlseys do not appear to have gained by their social rise at the end. Some critics have argued that Hartley is arguing that a socially divided society is a dangerous one; that Leos evaporated enthusiasm for a new century so full of unfulfilled promise is systematic of unfounded hopes of a new Golden Age if society remains segregated between the haves and have-nots. That the Boer War, which scarred the aristocratic Triningham, protracted and disastrous for Britain with a devastating display of Britains faltering significance and importance in world affairs, is a sign of a difficult century ahead. Triningham, a representative of a dying aristocracy with unseen wounds that a display of natural elegance and grace can hide but not heal. In spite of this, I find myself wholly disagreeing with this view of Hartleys novel The Go-Between. Hartley certainly does warn of the demise of the aristocracy, yet he does not rejoice in it. On the contrary, he mourns, grieves and laments the apparent loss of nobility throughout the work. Triningham is by far and away the most gracious, righteous and gallant character presented, there is only sympathy in a reader for his early death. I certainly fall on the side of Hartley strongly defending the hierarchical social order, and the aristocracys right to lead it. Yet it is important to do discuss other possibilities. Triningham then represents the best features of the aristocracy. Unlike Marian, from the start and until the end, there was no ulterior motive to Trininghams kindness: he was as true as steel even in the eyes of the unfaithful Marian. He is patriotic to the end too and was wounded in the defence of his countries Empire. Despite all this, in the book Hartley presents Marian displaying no reverence for Teds feelings, instead she is cruelly unfaithful to him whilst engaged. Every other character in the book has faults of character or of action, but Triningham is beyond such. His demise might be Hartley warning the middle-classes of the dangers involved with usurping the natural order. Even so, the story is told from Leos point of view, and Leo admires Triningham to such a great extent that his faults may be simply hidden from the readers view, or indeed perhaps the story is told from Leos point of view in order to allow Hartley to express his admiration. Even so, Leo the adolescent is also a bad judge of character and situation and so simply may be putting forward the wrong view. Be that as it may, the point still stands.